Religious Experience and the Phenomenological Study of Religion

Phenomenology is a discipline specializing in the study of experience (and its correlated objects: vision sees the visible). As applied in the study of religion phenomenology has become associated with the following social science methods: (a) participant observation (in which a person reports on his or her own tradition or studies another tradition by engaging in the practices and seeking the experiences of the tradition being studied); (b) empathic understanding, in which the researcher attempts to give voice to and achieve a sympathetic understanding of the tradition as experienced by its participants.

Students who are already religious may want to use the course as an occasion to deepen their spiritual practice. Spiritual experience is one of the most important, and often most enjoyable, aspects of religion. No student, however, is pressured to try any spiritual practice; they are entirely optional, and no grade depends upon your having tried any spiritual practice. The practice of contemplative prayer and the practice of conscious breathing discussed below were chosen because they are open to such a wide variety of persons. Those with no religious affirmation can use conscious breathing simply as a physical and psychological practice. I encourage you to sample these practices if they feel right for you. Otherwise, you can simply study them as examples of what some people do.

In particular, I do not recommend extreme mystical practices or space-out, trancelike diffusion of consciousness with vivid islands of focal attention operating on a comparatively passive intellect; and I believe that some religious practices are actually harmful. Here is one list of criteria suggested to help seekers enjoy a sane and well-balanced approach. See if the experiences help the individual

to enjoy better and more complete physical health
to function more efficiently and practically in your mental life
more fully and joyfully to socialize your religious experience
more completely to spiritualize your daily living while faithfully discharging the commonplace duties of routine mortal existence
to enhance your love for, and appreciation of, truth, beauty, and goodness
to conserve currently recognized social, moral, ethical, and spiritual values
to increase your spiritual insight--God-consciousness.

The following are descriptions of Thomas Keating's practice of contemplative prayer and Thich Nhat Hanh's practice of conscious breathing. They are paths to experience. Consider various types of similarity and difference between the approaches. For example, how does Keating's talk of "the presence of God within" relate to Hanh's talk of "the true self"? Thomas Keating happens to be a Roman Catholic priest, Thich Nhat Hanh, a Zen Buddhist monk.

The following are excerpts from Thomas Keating's pamphlet on Centering Prayer and from Peace Is Every Step by Thich Nhat Hanh (Bantam, 1991). These excerpts--and more--are found in the packet (in which copyright proprieties and royalties are properly handled). Since, however, some students have difficulty getting the packet in time for this early assignment, I have taken the liberty of making them available here.

Contemplative prayer (according to Thomas Keating)

We may think of prayer as thoughts or feelings expressed in words. But this is only one expression. Contemplative Prayer is the opening of mind and heart--our whole being--to God, the Ultimate Mystery, beyond thoughts, words, and emotions. We open our awareness to God whom we know by faith is within us, closer than breathing, closer than thinking, closer than choosing--closer than consciousness itself. Contemplative Prayer is a process of interior purification leading, if we consent, to divine union. Contering Prayer is a method designed to facilitate the development of contemplative prayer by preparing our faculties to cooperate with this gift. It is not meant to replace other kinds of prayer. During the time or prayer we consent to God's presence and action within. At other times our attention moves outward to discover God's presence everywhere.

Guidelines

1. Choose a sacred word as the symbol of your intention to consent to God's presence and action within.

2. Sitting comfortably and with eyes closed, settle briefly and silently introduce the sacred word as the symbol of your consent to God's presence and action within.

3. When you become aware of thoughts, return ever-so-gently to the sacred word.

4. At the end of the prayer period, remain in silence with eyes closed for a couple of minutes.

Explanation of the guidelines.

1. Choose a sacred word as the symbol of your intention to consent to God's presence and action within.

The sacred word expresses our intention to be in God's presence and to yield to the divine action.
The sacred word should be chosen during a brief period of prayer asking the Holy Spirit to inspire us with one that is especially suitable to us. Examples: Lord, Jesus, Father, Mother; or in other languages; Love, Peace, Mercy, Silence, Stillness, Calm, Faith, Trust, Yes
Having chosen the sacred word, we do not change it during the prayer period, for that would be to start thinking again.
A simple inward gaze upon God may be more suitable for some persons than the sacred word. In this case, one consents to God's presence and action by turning inwardly to God as if gazing upon him. The same guidelines apply to the sacred gaze as to the sacred word.

2. Sitting comfortably and with eyes closed, settle briefly and silently introduce the sacred word as the symbol of your consent to God's presence and action within.

comfortably: not so comfortably as to encourage sleep, but comfortably enough to avoid thinking about the discomfort of our bodies during the time of prayer.
whatever sitting position we choose, we keep the back straight.
If we fall asleep, we continue the prayer for a few minutes upon awakening if we can spare the time.
Praying in this way after a main meal encourages drowsiness. Better to wait an hour at least before Centering Prayer. Praying in this way just before retiring may disturb one's sleep pattern.
We close our eyes to let go of what is going on around and within us.
We introduce the sacred word inwardly and as gently as laying a feather on a piece of absorbent otton.

3. When you become aware of thoughts, return ever-so-gently to the sacred word.

"Thoughts" is an umbrella term for every perception including sense perceptions, feelings, images, memories, reflections, and commentaries.
Thoughts are a normal part of Centering Prayer.
By "returning ever-so-gently to the sacred word" a minimum of effort is indicated. This is the only activity we initiate during the time of Centering Prayer.
During the course of our prayer, the sacred word may become vague or even disappear.

4. At the end of the prayer period, remain in silence with eyes closed for a couple of minutes.

The additional two or three minutes give the psyche time to readjust to the external senses and enable us to bring the atmosphere of silence into daily life.

Some Practical Points

The minimum time for this prayer is twenty minutes. Two periods are recommended each day, one firth thing in the morning, and one in the afternoon or early evening.
The end of the prayer period can be indicated by a timer, provided it does not have an audible tick or loud sound when it goes off.
the principal effects of Centering Prayer are experienced in daily life, not in the period of Centering Prayer itself.
Physical symptoms. We may notice slight pains, itches, or twitches in various parts of the body or a generalized restlessness. These are usually due to the untying of emotional knots in the body. We may also notice heaviness or lightness in the extremities. This is usually due to a deep level of spiritual attentiveness. In either case, we pay no attention, or we allow the mind to rest briefly in the sensation, and then return to the sacred word.
Reading scripture to cultivate friendship with God, reading as if in conversation with God, leads into communing, "resting in God." This is the background of Centering Prayer.
A support group praying and sharing together once a week helps maintain one's commitment to the prayer.

Extending the Effects of Centering Prayer into Daily Life

Practice two periods of Centering Prayer daily.
Do religious reading regularly.
Joining a centering prayer group encourages members to persevere in private and provides an opportunity for further input on a regular basis through tapes, readings, and discussion.

Points for Further Development

During the prayer period various kinds of thoughts may be distinguished: ordinary wanderings of the imagination of memory; thoughts that give rise to attractions or aversions; insights and psychological breakthroughs; self-reflections such as "How am I doing?" or "This peace is just great."; thoughts that arise from the unloading of the unconscious.
During this prayer we avoid analyzing our experience, harboring expectations, or aiming at some specific goal such as repeating the sacred word continuously; having no thoughts; making the m ind a blank; feeling peaceful or consoled; achieving a spiritual experience.
Centering Prayer is not a technique, not a relaxation exercise, not a form of self-hypnosis, not a charismatic gift, not a parapsychological experience, not limited to the "felt" presence of God, not discursive meditation or affective prayer.
Centering Prayer is a relationship with God and a discipline to foster that relationship; an exercise of faith, hope, and love; a movement beyond conversation to communion; it habituates us to the language of God which is silence.

Conscious Breathing (according to Thich Nhat Hanh)

"According to the method of conscious breathing, when we breath in and out, we stop thinking, because saying "In" and "Out" is not thinking--"In" and "Out" are only words to help us concentrate on our breathing. If we keep breathing in and out this way for a few minutes, we become quite refreshed. We recover ourselves, and we can encounter the beautiful things around us in the present moment. The past is gone, the future is not yet here. If we do not go back to ourselves in the present moment, we cannot be in touch with life.

"When we are in touch the the refreshing, peaceful, and healing elements within ourselves and around us, we learn how to cherish and protect these things and make them grow. these elements of peace are available to us anytime. (p. 12)

[We lose ourselves in bad TV programs.] "Of course, I am not talking only about television. All around us, how many lures are set by our fellows and ourselves? In a single day, how many times do we become lost and scattered because of them? We must be very careful to protect our fate and our peace. I am not suggesting that we just shut all our windows, for there are many miracles in the world we call "outside." We can open our windows to these miracles and look at any one of them with awareness. this way, even while sitting beside a clear, flowing stream, listening to beautiful music, or watching an excellent movie, we need not lose ourselves entirely in the stream, the music, or the film. We can continue to be aware of ourselves and our breathing. With the sun of awareness shining in us, we can avoid most dangers. The stream will be purer, the music more harmonious, and the soul of the filmmaker completely visible.

"As beginning meditators, we may want to leave the city and go off to the countryside to help close those windows that trouble our spirit. There we can become one with the quiet forest, and rediscover and restore ourselves, without being swept away by the chaos of the "outside world." The fresh and silent woods help us remain in awareness, and when our awareness is well rooted and we can maintain it without faltering, we may wish to return to the city and remain there, less troubled. But sometimes we cannot leave the city, and we have to find the refreshing and peaceful elements that can heal us right in the midst of our busy lives.

We may wish to visit a good friend who can comfort us, or go for a walk in a park and enjoy the trees and the cool breeze. Whether we are in the city, the countryside, or the wilderness, we need to sustain ourselves by choosing our surroundings carefully and nourishing our awareness in each moment." (pp. 14-15)

"When you need to slow down and come back to yourself, you do not need to rush home to your meditation cushion or to a meditation center in order to practice conscious breathing. You can breathe anywhere, just sitting on your chair at the office or sitting in your automobile. Even if you are at a shopping center filled with people or waiting in line at a bank, if you begin to feel depleted and need to return to yourself, you can practice conscious breathing and smiling just standing there.

"Wherever you are, you can breathe mindfully. We all need to go back to ourselves from time to time, in order to be able to confront the difficulties of life. We can do this in any position, standing, sitting, lying down, or walking. If you can sit down, however, the sitting position is the most stable." (pp. 15-16)

"The most stable posture for meditation is sitting cross-legged on a cushion. Choose a cushion that is the right thickness to support you. The half-lotus and full-lotus positions are excellent for establishing stability of body and mind. To sit in the lotus position, gently cross your legs by placing one foot (for the half-lotus) or both feet (for the full-lotus) on the opposite thighs. If the lotus position is difficult, it is fine just to sit cross-legged or in any comfortable position. Allow your back to be straight, keep your eyes half-closed, and fold your hands comfortably on your lap. If you prefer, you can sit in a chair with your feet flat on the floor and your hands resting on your lap. Or you can lie on the floor, on your back, with your legs straight out, a few inches apart, and your arms at your sides, preferably palms up.

"If your legs or feet fall asleep or begin to hurt during sitting meditation so that your concentration becomes disturbed, feel free to adjust your position. If you do this slowly and attentively, following your breathing and each movement of your body, you will not lose a single moment of concentration. If the pain is severe, stand up, walk slowly and mindfully, and when you are ready, sit down again.

"In some meditation centers, practitioners are not permitted to move during periods of sitting meditation. They often have to endure great discomfort. To me, this seems unnatural. When a part of our body is numb or in pain, it is telling us something, and we should listen to it. We sit in meditation to help us cultivate peace, joy, and nonviolence, not to endure physical strain or to injure our bodies. To change the position of our feet or do a little walking meditation will not disturb others very much, and it can help us a lot.

"Sometimes, we an use meditation as a way of hiding from ourselves and from life, like a rabbit going back to his hole. Doing this, we may be able to avoid some problems for a while, but when we leave our "hole," we will have to confront them again. For example, if we practice our meditation very intensely, we may feel a kind of relief as we exhaust ourselves and divert our energy from confronting our difficulties. But when our energy returns, our problems will return with them.

"We need to practice meditation gently, but steadily throughout daily life, not wasting a single opportunity or event to see deeply into the true nature of life, including our everyday problems. Practicing in this way, we dwell in profound communion with life." (pp. 16-18)

"In my tradition, we use the temple bells to remind us to come back to the present moment. Every time we hear the bell, we stop talking, stop our thinking, and return to ourselves, breathing in and out, and smiling. Whatever we are doing, we pause for a moment and just enjoy our breathing. Sometimes we also recite this verse:

Listen, listen.

This wonderful sound brings me back to my true self.

When we breathe in, we say, "Listen, listen." and when we breath out, we say, "This wonderful sound brings me back to my true self." (pp. 18-19)