Glossary of Chinese Philosophical Terms

The first groups of terms is for the first exam on March 5; the second group of terms is for the second exam on April 23.  Please check the glossaries in the other texts, especially Ames and Rosemont, 45-65 and Ivanhoe & van Norden, pp. 357-362.  Also you should look at chapters 9-11 in Spiritual Titanism.

iDe is variously translated as excellence, virtue, function, but Slingerland's kindness is just right for Analects 14:34 (36).  Confucius said that Tian is the source of the de that is in him, and both Confucianism and Daoism hold that everything that exists has its own de.  It is that which makes a thing what it is.  It is equivalent to the Greek arete, a thing's function and potential excellence.

Cheng means sincerity or more properly "being true to one's nature."  Important term in the Doctrine of the Mean.

Junzi is Confucius' ideal person. Literal meaning is "son of the ruler," prince, but contemporary translations are superior person or authentic person. Except for implications in some elitist passages, Confucius appears to grant the potential for anyone to become a junzi.

Li originally meant religious rites but by Confucius' time it was secularized to include the many ways in which people were to comport themselves properly.  Chan's "propriety" is a superb translation because it comes from the Latin propius, which means "making one's own."  This fits beautifully with the idea of yi as the personal appropriation of li.

Li* is the principal sin in Confucianism: doing something for profit or advantage.  Li* does not always have a negative connotation especially in the Daodejing, where the text frequently states that the Dao "benefits" all things.

Qi is the basic energy of the universe, its densest form appearing in inanimate things while its finest form manifesting itself in heart-mind.

Ren means human person in the physical sense.

Ren* is variously translated as humanity, benevolence, human heartedness, compassion, love, etc. The character is constructed from ren plus the number two added, so the literal meaning is "Two-peopleness."  Therefore, being truly humane is to be always and already in relationship with people.  See summary of Tu weiming's view here.  See also A&R's glosssary.

Ru: what the Confucians are called in Chinese.   Ivanhoe translates it as "erudites."

Shen means "spirit" or "god."  It sometimes means human spirit as an equivalent to the Greek psyche.   Kami is the Japanese equivalent of shen.

Sheng means sage, the highest level of human perfection in Confucianism.

Sheng* means "life" as in "the life of a person lies in being true" (Analects 6.19) or "inborn," as in Gaozi's belief that the desire for sex and food are innate.

Shi means scholar-knight, a sort of apprentice junzi or at least a person of ren* in training.  They are by nature peripatetic (i.e., wandering) and frequently unemployed.  As Mencius states: "To lack constant livelihood, yet to have a constant heart (xin)" is possible only in the shi.  Such idleness would destroy the common people.  In D. C. Lau's Mencius shi is capitalized as Gentleman, while the junzi is lowercase gentleman.

Shu is reciprocity, loyalty, deference, altruistic, doing your best and respecting others. Shu is other regarding.

Tian ming, the mandate of Heaven, which the bad ruler always loses and the virtuous always keeps.  Confucius knew tian ming at the age of 50.  Tian ming is, according the Ode #235,  not immutable because it depends on the virtue of the human leaders.

Zhi means realizing ren* and knowing correctly what to do (H&A, TC, p. 50). Being ren* is realizing oneself, realizing de, one's virtue or nature. Zhi is moral wisdom that is realized in practice. One must make ren* real and concrete. No love of theoretical wisdom (philo + sophia) as in European philosophy. Instead: philo + phronesis (practical reason). No distinction between intellectual and moral virtue. “to know is to authenticate in action” (A&R, 55).  See 6.22, 15.32, 8.9, 15.4. Aesthetics, nature, and zhi in 6:21: Those who realize the world enjoy water; those who are ren* enjoy the mountains (H&A, TC, p. 53).

zhi* as directed xin, the Confucian equivalent of the will.  In actions it can be directed outward in action towards others and objects.  "Your resolution (zhi) is the commander of the qi.

Zhong is being faithful, conscientious, trustworthy, having self respect. Zhong is self-regarding. Together we shu they are the "one thread" of Confucian thought and the primary expression of ren*.

Xin* is the virtue of honesty, integrity, and sincerity. Literal meaning: a person standing by [her] word. Serving parents and ruler and making “good on their word (xin*)”. Even though unschooled, they are still learned and educated (hsüeh/xue).  (1.7, A&R) “Xin* is the consummation of fiduciary relationships” (A&R, 53).

  Xin (heart-mind), the center of the Confucian self.

Yi: righteousness, morality (Lau); both misleading translations. Yi, according to Ames &Rosement, is doing what is appropriate with one’s virtue. Yi is putting li into practice your own way. Yi is one’s own unique disposition to act according to li. One makes one’s own meaning and personal identity. Meaning is fusion of external li and internal yi. Yi is acting appropriately in one’s own situation. It may be necessary, for example, to break promises and tell white lies.  Or Mencius' famous example of the prohibition of touching your sister-in-law, but your obligation to save her from drowning if only your hand can save her.

Benjamin Schwartz agrees: yi is "situation-oriented"; it is "the capacity to act correctly in all the complex circumstances of . . . human life." Lau concurs: "Whether an act is yi does not depend only on the motive, but also on whether it is fitting in the situation." Chan also agrees: yi is "necessary to make distinctions" (Source Book, 50).

Therefore, if yi is a personal appropriation of li, then yi comes before li. Lau’s "rightness" is not quite "right," but "righteousness" is totally misleading.  For Judeo-Christians righteousness means being "right with God" by confirming to God's will.   The Confucian sage is right with Heaven only in the sense of emulating Heaven's harmony, stability, and predictability.

Terms for Second Terms Exam.  Consult the texts above to fill out the definitions.

Cheng means sincerity or more properly "being true to one's nature."  Important term in the Doctrine of the Mean.

Li** means cosmic principle in both specific and general terms.  This meaning dominates neo-Confucian thinking.

ziran literally "self-so."  What a thing does on its own according to its de.  Spontaneous action independent from outside causation or control.

da zhi great understanding in Zhuangzi chap. 2.

xiao zhi little understanding in Zhuangzi chap. 2.

wu. The larger character is ancient calligraphy and the smaller is modern.

wei. The larger character is ancient calligraphy and the smaller is modern.

hundun

yin and yang

xian

tian li

you

wu

zhi ren

zhen ren

shen ren

da ren

cheng ren

de ren

qi

ming illumination

Panku

guan